A later section of this paper suggests at a conceptual level variables that are likely to mediate elaboration likelihood and the route to persuasion in marketing situations. A pilot study reported elsewhere Obermiller and Bitner begins to address these questions. In the study we have specifically identified atmosphere as an important peripheral cue for product evaluations, and purchase orientation "shopping" versus "browsing" as a determinant of motivation.
The results of that study showed that a pleasant atmosphere enhances product evaluations when subjects are in a low state of motivation "browsing" , but that pleasantness of atmosphere has no effect on product evaluations when subjects are motivated "shopping" as the ELM predicts.
Although the study does not address the core problem of how to know in advance that atmosphere will act as a peripheral cue, the results contribute to our knowledge of how and when atmosphere may operate as a peripheral cue to influence our attitudes toward products.
ELM combines a variety of effects under the category of peripheral processing. These effects may, in fact, result from quite different processes. On one hand, peripheral effects may result from cognitive "short cuts. Her information processing center is a miser that decides, "I'm not very interested in this issue, so, rather than waste effort on developing a well-considered attitude, I'll base my affective response on a source cue.
A physically repulsive lawyer may have difficulty attracting clients regardless of ability. The negative effect associated with physical appearance is a simple affective response, not a cognitive short cut. Other less conscious affective responses may result from classical conditioning and mere exposure. Since the cognitive short cuts imply a low degree of object relevant cognitive activity and direct affective responses imply almost no cognitive activity, ELM may be underspecified in grouping the two types of processing together.
This possibility is suggested by Greenwald and Leavitt in their separation of levels of involvement into four categories: preattention, focal attention, comprehension and elaboration.
Preattention and focal attention represent distinctly different processes of elaboration, yet the ELM implies that both levels of involvement would result in "PeriPheral processing. A direct implication of the preceding discussion is the question of differing strengths of resulting attitudes.
Petty and Cacioppo argue that peripheral results in less durable, less forceful attitudes that are less predictive of behavior. Their prediction is consistent with a model that presents affect as a cognitive structure that can be more or less integrated with an object representation, thus more or less durable and forceful. Greenwald and Leavitt are in agreement.
Their principle of "higher level dominance" posits that effects of more elaborate processes will dominate the effects of less elaborate processes given equal numbers of repetition. The equal repetition constraint is an important one since peripheral processing is typically associated with many exposures, central processing with few. Another possibility is a model incorporating another construct, confidence in attitude, such that attitudes based on peripheral cues are held with less confidence.
An altogether different model is argued by Zajonc ; with Markus , who maintains that attitudes based on directly affective responses may be more durable and more forceful than attitudes that result from thoughtful consideration, particularly because they are less susceptible to change by central processing.
Petty and Cacioppo present post hoc support for their hypothesis, but no direct test has been conducted. We propose two approaches to researching the question of relative attitude strength and predictability of behavior.
The first is a straightforward between subjects tests. One group would receive a positive central processing manipulation followed by a negative peripheral processing manipulation. The extent and durability of change would be compared with a second group that received the manipulations in the opposite order.
Such a test would address the relative resistance of attitudes developed centrally and peripherally. Behavioral measures could also be taken in each case to compare relative attitude-behavior consistencies. The second approach would be to select objects with existing attitudes formed largely from either central or peripheral processes.
For example Zajonc and Markus suggest that our attitudes toward some foods are acquired early in life primarily through affective or peripheral associations. On the other hand, attitudes toward expensive products such as cars and houses are likely to result from central processing of specific product-relevant information. Several objects of each type could be selected and their relative resistances could then be assessed by subjecting each to change strategies.
ELM presents the two routes as alternatives. Of particular interest to marketers is the question of separate main effects versus interaction. Petty and Cacioppo suggest an interaction: If central processing occurs first, peripheral processing is irrelevant, but if peripheral processing occurs first, it may lead to central processing.
Their reasoning recalls the hierarchy of effects model of low involvement learning Ray Advertising may work through low involvement by creating very weak preferences peripheral effects that induce purchase, which leads to strong attitudes based on experience central effects. Another attractive hypothesis is that peripheral processing may have a main effect in addition to central processing.
If central processing results in nearly equal preferences for alternatives, peripheral effects may be marginally determinant. For many product categories objective differences, even advertising claim differences, are small, and preferences may well result from peripheral effects. Research addressing this question might involve the selection by "expert" judges or through another procedure of several brands of a product that are determined to be essentially the same in their central, product-relevant characteristics.
Peripheral cues such as music, endorser characteristics, or atmosphere could then be varied systematically to explore whether such peripheral cues can significantly alter the evaluations of essentially similar products and when this is most likely to be true. Image advertising of products such as beer and soft drinks would suggest that marketers believe that peripheral cues are the determinants of preference when objective cues are approximately equal.
What happens when one is highly motivated to process thoughtfully but there is no "useful" information to process? This means you probably want to include the option to zoom in on product images as well as provide a drop-down menu with technical specifications.
You may want to include a short video of the bat in action, along with celebrity endorsements. Once this visitor has fully scrutinized their options, compared the price and ratings to the offerings on other sites, and made their final decision to commit, your site should then clearly lead them towards the checkout, which should be equally easy to navigate.
A newbie baseball player should feel equally welcome on the site. Imagery should be inspiring, yet inclusive: perhaps a picture of a famous baseball player in action, or a crowd cheering on a player as they get a hit.
To the seasoned enthusiast, this is someone on their level and an experience they can relate to. To a newbie, this is their hero and someone they aspire to be. The copy should be friendly yet authoritative, and the terminology should be jargon-free.
For a casual shopper looking for an entry-level bat, being able to organize the offering according to price and customer rating is particularly helpful. You can have a site that appeals to both of these different thinkers. The difference between the two is loyalty. The experienced baseball player approached the site from a central way of thinking.
They are far more likely to return to shop again due to the level of thought they put into making their choice the first time around. In the peripheral route, we might also be persuaded to support something because we see that there are a lot of arguments in favor of it—but we might not carefully consider whether these arguments are actually any good.
Someone who has less time to pay attention to an ad would have a lower level of elaboration, so they might be persuaded by seeing a favorite celebrity with a milk mustache i. However, someone who is especially health-conscious might have a higher level of elaboration on this issue, so they might not find this ad especially convincing.
Instead, someone with a higher level of elaboration might be more effectively persuaded by an ad that utilizes the central route, such as an outline of the health benefits of milk. The elaboration likelihood model is similar to another theory of persuasion suggested by researchers, the heuristic -systematic model developed by Shelly Chaiken.
In this theory, there are also two routes to persuasion, which are called the systematic route and the heuristic route. However, not all researchers agree that there are two routes to persuasion: some researchers have proposed a unimodel of persuasion in which there is just one route to persuasion, rather than a central and peripheral route.
The elaboration likelihood model has been an influential and widely-cited theory in psychology, and its key contribution is the idea that people can be persuaded of things in one of two different ways depending on their level of elaboration for a particular topic.
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